Investigating Linguistic Sexism in Popular Ilokano Songs
Introduction
The Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis states that language constrains and shapes our thoughts and
perceptions (Heredero 2007: 88). It is one of the pioneering theories which
sparked debates and investigations about the relationship of language and how
we view reality. However, it is vital to point out that two forms of the theory
as the 1) Strong version: language determines how we interpret the world, and the
2) Weak version: language is only one
factor in how we construct the world (Pauwels 1998:83).
This Linguistic determinism theory suggests that
language controls our perception of the world (Mills 1995:84) as supported by Holmes
(2008:350) who believe that language to some extent affects our world-view and
consequently the way we view gender. Spender (1980:97) argues that those with
power, who we traditionally ascribe to the men, have the ability to create
language and consequently the reality. She argues that sexist language enables
sexist world-views (1980:96). The same
observation was pointed out by Prewitt-Freilino, Caswell and Laakso (2012: 278)
who studied that countries that speak gendered languages have less gender
equality than countries where natural gender or genderless languages are
spoken.
Linguistic
sexism is defined as ‘the practice whereby someone foregrounds gender when it
is not the most salient feature’ in a discourse (Vetterling-Braggin, 1991). This kind of sexism is apparent in the English
language as investigated by Mills (1995:87) as well as other languages in the
world as investigated in the following:
- Spanish (Jiménez Rodrigo, Onsalo and Cortes
2011),
- Norwegian
(Blakar 1977),
- French
(Yaguello 1978),
- German
(Guentherodt et
al. 1980; Hellinger and Schräpel 1983)
More recently the documentation of gender bias has
spread to languages such as Chinese, Icelandic, Lithuanian, Italian, Japanese,
Polish, and Thai (Hellinger and Bussman 2001; Pauwels 1998).
Linguistic sexism, that is sexism conveyed within language, which is
likewise found in some other various languages and exists in many forms
(Pauwels 1998:16). This kind of sexism is present in the English language, for
example through the generic use of masculine words such as “chairman” or “salesman”
(Mills 1995:87). Another example of how language is used as a sexist one is the
asymmetrical method of describing a female and male person, for instance by describing
women by their appearance more often than men (Mills 1995:162).
Despite the differing opinions regarding this subject, some believe that
language only reflects the society we live in and others take on the
perspective of linguistic determinism. Linguistic determinism is a theory
suggesting that language controls our perception of the world (Mills 1995:84).
If one agrees to some extent that language-use is related to and has an impact
on reality, it is clear why the study of linguistic sexism is important in a
world where gender equality still has not been reached and that an “inclusive
and equitable sharing of power and opportunity” remains an elusive dream for the
most part.
With this being said, Mills (1995:17) claims that gender is a present factor in texts and is of the opinion that it needs to be exposed and dealt with. Mills (1995) provides a feminist model for textual analysis with tools to identify gender representation in any text at the level of word, sentence and discourse. She argues that the exposure of linguistic sexism is one of the approaches necessary in order to change sexist structures in the society (Mills 2008:159)
Background
A song, in spite of being a literary and amusement
work, is often used to foreground a particular ideology (Setyono & Sri
Wahyuni, 2012). In fact, songs are created not just for entertainment purposes
but to initiate a particular ideological message or philosophical thought,
children character education, criticize government decision, criticize a social
phenomenon, to maintain, propagate and perpetuate the existing worldview of the
people with respect to gender. In so doing, a
substantive glimpse of the people’s perception will be revealed since language
and gender are deeply intertwined component of culture (Ihejirika, 2014).
The Ilokano language
is a thriving language of more than 15 million people being the lingua franca
of the Northern Philippines, parts of Central Luzon and NCR, as well as parcels
of Visayas and Mindanao regions. Presently, there is
a huge number of Ilokano speakers in Guam, Alaska, California, Washington,
Hawaii, Texas, New York, Nevada, and New Jersey, all in the United States. In
other parts of the world, a huge number of Ilokano speakers are found in
Canada, Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. (UH Manoa,
2019)
Ilokano is spoken as a first language by some 7
million people, primarily in Northern Luzon specifically Ilocos and Cagayan
Valley Regions (Luzano 2018:1) It is also spoken as a second language by
possibly another 2 million speakers in the northern areas of Luzon as a lingua
franca in trade, commerce, and everyday communication (Pacris 2018). Admittedly,
the Ilokano language is the vehicle of the Ilokano culture, tradition, and
ideology as embodied in their history, literatures and songs (Rambaud 2015).
Aim, scope, and research questions
As
an Ilokano language speaker and writer, and at the same time English language
teacher, the desire on my part to partake in this renewed focus on language and
gender studies aligned with the intent of unraveling the possibilities of
existence of sexism, not only on the English language and Filipino language or
the language of the center, but also on the languages on the periphery. regional
literatures prompted me to undertake this study. I wish to use this opportunity
to study the nuances of English language side by side with the Ilokano language.
The aim of this study is to examine
sexism in the language use of the lyrics of ten (10) popular Ilokano songs by using Sarah Mills
feminist stylistic framework. The toolkit in feminist stylistic was provided
almost twenty years ago and this study examines if it is still possible to
detect linguistic sexism using this method. The scope is limited to the
analysis of the lyrics of ten (10) popular Ilokano songs which are freely
translated by this researcher with consultation/reference to dictionaries and references
when the need arose just to validate and/or verify the accuracy of the
translation.
To fulfil the
aim of the study, the following research questions are addressed:
- How, if at
all, is linguistic sexism expressed in the lyrics of popular Ilokano songs
at the word-level?
- How, if at
all, is linguistic sexism expressed in the lyrics of popular Ilokano songs
at the discourse-level?
- How, if at all, is the language-use affected by the singer-composer’s background in terms of sexism in language use?
Research Framework
Feminist stylistics is a theory and method presented
by Mills (1995) used for analyzing texts by focusing on the way gender is
represented in a given text. Mills’ framework (1995:2) could be used for
analyzing any text to discover gender differences, songs included. This framework
also builds on work from other feminist linguists such as Cameron (1985 cited
in Mills 1995:15) and Coates (1986 cited in Mills 1995:15).
Mills’ framework suggests that sexism
can be determined by focusing on some
linguistic features: such as 1) Gendered generic words, 2) Naming practices,
and 3) How female and male characters are described. Now for this paper, only
the first and the third are analyzed due to the lack of naming practices and
conventions indicated in the corpus or lyrics of the ten (10) popular Ilokano
songs
In addition, Mills
(1995:21) proposed that linguistic sexism could be analyzed at three levels in
a text: which as follows: 1) word-level analysis, 2) sentence-level
analysis, and 3) discourse-level analysis. However, for this investigation,
only the word-level and discourse-level analysis was undertaken.
Aside from analyzing texts at different levels, Mills
(1995:31-43) argues for a feminist model of analysis of text that includes the
context of production and the context of reception in the analysis. Mills
(1995:31) places the author as a central factor at the context of production
since the author has an important role for the choice of language used within a
lyrics of the songs. Hence, the background of the singer-composer would figure
prominently in the analysis of the corpus in this investigation. This is
because the actual gender of the singer-composer itself as the lyrics of the
songs written correspond to the entire worldview including the treatment and
depiction of gender in the use of language in the form of the lyrics of the
popular Ilokano songs.
Research Data
The 10 Popular Ilokano
Songs
The research data for this study features the ten (10)
Popular Ilokano songs from Track #1 through
Track #10 of the album of Demy Q was released in 1983 as Album Number 56
aptly titled Ti Ari ken ti Prinsesa (The King and the Princess)
Volume 1. It was arranged by Eliseo
B. Contillo and was released by Republic Records Philippines in the year 1983.
The album was not an Ilokano folksong but rather belongs to the contemporary genre.
It was initially available via cassette medium and now, it was uploaded to the
video sharing site YouTube.com as a recording collection of Rudy Contillo (2016)
found at the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) https://youtu.be/2kTxGKf9y98.
The lyrics of the ten (10) Popular Ilokano songs and
the corresponding free translation in consultation of the Ilokano Dictionaries
of Laconsay (1993), Agacoili (2011), and Constantino (1971) as well as
contemporary online Google dictionary. These can be accessed by clicking this
link https://drive.google.com/file/d/1EwleXyiJzB_UasCfpUA340jDsItBM3Ex/view?usp=sharing
The album entitled Demy Q
Album #56 include the ten (10) selected tracks namely:
Track # 1 Daksanggasatak Unay (I am most Devastated)
Track # 2 Sadag ken Amin Ko (My Pillar and My
Everything)
Track # 3 Dika Aglawlaweng (Don’t Waste Your Time)
Track # 4 Kapungan (Other Half)
Track # 5 No Umisem Ka (When you Smile)
Track # 6 Awandan Da Karim (Your Lost Promises)
Track # 7 Tunggal Darikmat (Every Moment)
Track # 8 Dikanto Agbabawi (You Won’t Regret)
Track # 9 Ti Lalaki (A Man)
Track # 10 Mangnamnama Ka (You can Count on Me)
The Singer behind the
songs
The singer, Engr. Demetrio
A. Quirino Jr., (a.k.a. ‘Demy Q’) is a Civil Engineer and educator who
founded the Technological Institute of the Philippines in 1962. An Ilokano hailing
from Nueva Vizcaya province, he topped the Civil Engineering board exam after
graduating from National University. Demy Q is known as the ‘King of Ilocano Songs’
ascribed by Marilyn Contillo in her article entitled “Demy Quirino: The King
of Ilocano Songs” (1999) published in the Philippine Graphic magazine.
Reputable music enthusiasts touted Demy Q the “Jose Mari Chan of Ilocandia” due to their similar musical style and vocal timbre and vocal range. Demy Q, apart from being a Civil engineer and educator, spends his leisure time recording songs in English, Tagalog and Ilokano songs. In fact, he owns one of the most technologically-advanced recording studios in the metro at that time (Lahoz, 2005).
Word-level
Analysis
Gendered
generic words
Of the ten
popular Ilokano song lyrics analyzed showed no use of gendered generic words,
at least in the original Ilokano lyrics and their original meaning. The words “man”
was not used when referring to both women and men. There was never any instance
of sexist or gender-biased reference throughout the lyrics of the ten popular Ilokano
songs. Of noticeable feature of the lyrics were the use of gender-neutral pronouns
such as “I”, “my”, “you”, and especially the “we” which I find very inclusive
and not othering any gender at all. This is a very surprising revelation on
this investigation since I always have had this impression of Ilokano being a sexism
language just like any other languages such as English, and most especially
Spanish which had greatly influenced Ilokano.
Now, there is
one word which is the “Fatherland” featured in the translated lyrics of the third
song/track “Dika Aglawlaweng” (Don’t Waste Your Time) in the Chorus part and
this I think is gendered in a way that this pertains to the gender or sex of
the nation identified as a male one which clearly is a sexist one.
In an article
of Paracha (2021) she investigated the origin of this term is from the Latin “patria”
which translates as father in most Western countries. However, American scholar
Charles Anthon in his 1867 book ‘Aeneid of Virgil’, he noted that the ancient
Romans saw Italy, the seat of the Roman Empire, as “motherland.” as with
the case of Indian and various Russian and Asian contexts.
In the corpus
of the study, the Ilokano language for fatherland is “pagilian” is
rooted from the “ili” which is a gender-neutral term for “town”. My own
free translation of this Ilokano word into Fatherland is clearly
influenced by Western conceptualization of what a nation is and this is more of
a case of translation issue rather than a linguistic sexism.
Discourse-level analysis
Moving on to discourse-level analysis, the
song lyrics were analyzed as to how female and male characters are described/presented.
As previously mentioned, the features investigated at this level could be
argued as belonging to word-level. However, it is Mills (1995) division that is
used, and they are therefore placed at discourse-level.
Describing female and male characters by
relationship to others
As Mills (1995:160) argues, stereotypical
beliefs are often visible in the description of female and male characters.
Defining women by their relationship to others is an example of how stereotypes
are reflected in texts such as song lyrics. Relevant when analyzing how female
and male characters are described in the lyrics of the ten popular Ilokano
songs is therefore how often they are referred to with their relationship to
others. The categories chosen for this analysis were: mother/father, and
man/woman or lady.
Interestingly, of the only iterations of the
words “Mother and Father” in the third track/song entitled “Dika Aglawlaweng” (Don’t
Waste your Time) is never considered to be a sexist one since it does not put
prejudice and undue preference to one over another (Vetterling-Braggin,
1991). These results do
not consistently fall with with previously mentioned theories suggesting that
women stereotypically are seen as more connected with relationships (Heilman
2012:705) as there seemingly a balanced treatment of denoting parenthood to
both the Father and the Mother without necessarily burdening the Mother or the
female gender at all. The frequency of woman being referred to as mothers equals
with that of the man being referred to as fathers indicates that parenthood is balanced
in the case of the corpus of the lyrics of the songs and these do not fit into
what Mills (2008:127) categorized as parenthood being more often assigned to
women than men.
Describing female and male characters by appearance
Included within the area of
describing female and male characters is the practice of describing women by
their appearance. Mills (1995:162) argues that female characters tend to be described
by their appearance while men more often are described by their personality.
In the track/song #4 entitled “Kapungan”
(My Other Half), we can see the “lady” was described by the singer/composer/lyricist
as “A modest lady, Industrious and trustworthy, Is the woman of my dreams, To
be my other half in this life” presented both in terms of her appearance and
personality which clearly do not fall under the classification of being sexist (Mills
1995:162). The balanced description of the lady is continued throughout the
entire song as “She may not be rich,
But her love is true. Her skin may not be as white, But
her heart is clear and pure.” And especially in the final stanza: “She is with
me all throughout, In poorest and in richest, Hand-in-hand, we face tomorrow, We
embrace our future together.” Such a balanced and nuanced description of
appearance and personality is once again something that is unexpected on my
part since I have this pre-disposition that women/ladies are generally presented
or described in terms of their appearance but not in this corpus of ten popular
Ilokano song lyrics.
Singer-Composer-Lyricist background
Another
important concern to be addressed in this investigation is the context of
production in what Mills (1995:31) refers to as a feminist model of text.
Relevant for this study is, as mentioned earlier is the role of the singer-composer-lyricist
in the course of the song production. It is the individual singer-composer-lyricist,
Engr. Demetrio A. Quirino, who to some extent decides which type of language
that is used in the lyrics of the songs contained in one of his many albums.
The author of a text is in her/his turn affected by factors such as literary conventions
and trends and publishing factors (Mills 1995:31). However, no language guidelines
have been found for the production and publication of the songs contained in
the said album. Being an engineer, educator, philanthropist, and constitutionalist
proved to be a deciding factor in his choice of linguistic terms used to write
the lyrics of his songs (Lahoz, 2005). The results of the investigation regarding
the absence of gendered generic words as well as the balanced description of
male and female characters in terms of appearance and personality provide for
the possibility of avoidance if not total elimination of virtually sexist words
in a set of published works such as, for this investigation, a set or album of popular
Ilokano songs.
Research conclusions
Based on the results and discussion above,
I found out that the lyrics of the ten (10) popular Ilokano songs of Engr. Demetrio A. Quirino Jr. more
popularly known as Demy Q, contained well-thought-out lyrics which
feature gender neutral and gender inclusive words, descriptions and terminologies
which are not sexist nor biased to one gender. Employing Mills Feminist
Stylistic analysis, the results of word-level analysis as well as in the
discourse-level analyses regarding the
absence of gendered generic words as well as the balanced description of male
and female characters in terms of appearance and personality provide for the possibility
of avoidance if not total elimination of virtually sexist words in a set of
published works such as, for this investigation, a set or album of popular
Ilokano songs.
These findings
are presumably affected by the type of the research data or corpus of text
being analyzed. Songs, particularly song lyrics are created in a very
controlled way or manner of composition in terms of having a set of linguistic and
lexical choices among a specific repertoire of meanings and ideas the
singer-composer-lyricist have at his disposal. As stated earlier, the selected ten
popular Ilokano song lyrics are all created by Engr. Demetrio A Quirino Jr who
is known to be well-educated and gender-sensitive person as attested by Contillo
(1999) and Lahoz (2005) feature such gender-sensitive choice of lexical items
are therefore expected of his song lyrics and similar write ups he may have
written or created.
To further
validate the findings of this study, it is highly recommended to expand the repertoire
of data to be subjected to the same analysis to include among others news reports,
advertisements, and among other similar texts and linguistic outputs. This research may
be expanded in its scope and some limitations in the area of ethnolinguistic
anthropology as well as studies on language translations and may be improved to
make it more comprehensive.
References
Bacharo, Romeo C. Jr. (2000). Pre-Colonial Philippines.
Romeobacharo.com. Retrieved 24 July
2013 from
http://romeobacharo.com/philhistory_precolonial.html
Bovan, V. (1991). Yugoslav Oral Lyric, Primarily in Serbo-Croatian. Oral Tradition Journal of
Article.
Volume 6, No2-3,
Year 1991. Available online at http://journal.oraltradition.org.
Bjork, C. (2011). Claiming Space: Discourses on Gender, Popular Music, and Social Change.
Thesis for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Music Education (Musikpedagogik) at the
Academy of Music and Drama, Faculty of Fine, Applied, and Performing Arts, University
of Gothenburg Art Monitor dissertation No.22 Available Online at https://gupea.ub.gu.se
Cameron, D. 1992. Feminism & Linguistic Theory. 2nd ed. New York: Palgrave.
Cameron, D. ed., 1998. The Feminist Critique of Language: a Reader. 2nd ed. London:
Routledge.
Coates, J. 2004. Women, Men and Language: a Sociolinguistic Account of Gender
Differences
in Language. 3rd ed. Harlow: Longman
Culture.
(n.d.). Global-nomad.com. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
from http://www.global-nomad.com/ilocos_content/ilocos_culture.html
Contillo, Marilyn Corrales. "Demy Quirino: King of Ilocano Songs." Philippine Graphic 25 January 1999: 38-40. Magazine.
Contillo, Rudy. Demy Quirino Ilocano Songs (Album
#56). 1 September 2016. YouTube. 12 December 2016.
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2kTxGKf9y98>.
Constantino, Ernesto Andres. Ilokano dictionary.
Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1971. Book.
Department
of Education. K to 12 Curriculum Guide: English.
Pasig City, December 2012. Electronic.
Dijk, T.V. (1998). Critical Discourse Analysis. Handbook of Discourse Analysis. University of
Amsterdam. Available Online
at http://www. hum.uva.nl/-teun/cda.htm
Dijk. T.V. (2000). Principles of critical discourse analysis. University of Amsterdam. Available
Online at
http://www. hum.uva.nl/-teun/cda.htm
Domingo, Dean. The Ilokano Language and Literature Program. University of Hawaii. Manoa Campus 2 September 2014. Website. 5 December 2016.
Doyle, M. 1995/6. Introduction to The A-Z of
Non-Sexist Language. In: Cameron, D. ed.,
1998. The
Feminist Critique of Language: a Reader. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Ch.11.
Ehrlich, S., King, R. 1992. Gender-based Language Reform and The Social Construction of
Meaning. In:
Cameron, D. ed., 1998. The Feminist Critique of Language: a Reader. 2nd ed.
London:
Routledge. Ch.13.
Fairclough, N.
(2000). The Dialectics of Discourse. Internet Article. Available
Online at
Fairclough, N., (1992). Language and Power. Singapore:
Longman Singapore Publisher (Pte) Ltd.
Ferolino, Harlem Jude P. "Cultural Approach on F.
Sionil Jose's "Waywaya"." 13 August 2013. Whisper and Shout.
Web document. 5 December 2016.
Freed, A. F.,
2003. Reflections on Language and Gender Research. In: Holmes, J., Meyerhoff,
M. ed., 2003. The
Handbook of Language and Gender. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 699-718.
Foronda, Marcelino A. Dallang
: An Introduction to Philippine literature in Ilokano and other essays.
Honolulu, Hawaii: Philippine Studies Program, University of Hawaii, 1978. Book.
Gerot,
L., & Wignel, P., (1995). Making Sense of Functional Grammar.
Cammeray: Antipodean
Educational Enterprises
Halliday. M.A.K. (1975). Learning How to Mean. Exploration in the Development of Language.
Hill Street:
Edward Arnold Publisher
Halliday. M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold
Heilman E, M. 2012. The ”Bad Parent” Assumption: How Gender Stereotypes Affect
Reactions
to Working Mothers. Journal of Social Issues, 68(4), pp. 704-724
Hollander, G. 2013. UK newspapers ranked by total readership (print and online).
PressGazette [online]
29 August. Available at: <http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/uknewspapers-
ranked-total-readership-print-and-online> [Accessed on 19 May
2014].
Holmes, J. 2008. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson.
Holmes, J., Meyerhoff, M. ed., 2003. The handbook of Language and Gender. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Hornby, A. S. 2010. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English. 8th ed.
Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Henderson, R. (2005). A Faircloughian approach to CDA: Principled eclecticism or a method
searching
for a theory? Melbourne Studies of Education Journals, 46, 2, 2005. Available
online at http://www.tandfonline.com
Heriwati, S.H. (2010). Metafora dalam Cakepan Tembang Tembang Jawa. Harmonia, Jurnal
Pengetahuan dan
Pemikiran Seni, 10, 1.
Tahun 2010. Available Online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id
History from the People (Kasaysayan mula sa Bayan), Vol. 1. (1998). NHI Building, T.M. Kalaw
St., Ermita, Manila, Philippines;
Philippine Social Science Center, Commonwealth Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines. National Historical Institute and Philippine National Historical
Society.
Ihejirika, Richard C. "Literature and English
Language Teaching and Learning: A Symbiotic Relationship." Canadian
Center of Science and Education: English Language Teaching (2014). Web
Document.
Ilocanos. In Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World
Cultures. 1999. The Gale Group, Inc.
Jose, F. Sionil. (24 September
2012). To teachers: Why literature.
Philstar.com | Philippine News
for the Filipino Global Community. Retrieved 20 July 2013 from http://www.philstar.com/arts-and-culture/2012-09-24/852141/teachers-why-literature
Laconsay, Gregorio. Iluko-English-Tagalog
Dictionaries. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing
House,
1993. Book
Lahoz, Elizabeth Q.
"Portrait of the Filipino as an outstanding private school
administrator." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of
the Philippines Diliman: College of Education: University of the Philippines,
2005.
Levinson,
C.S. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 1983. Book
Llamzon, Teodoro A. (1978). Handbook of Philippine Language Groups. Quezon City,
Philippines. Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Macansantos, Priscilla Supnet. (25
Apr 2007). A Hometown as Literature for F. Sionil José.
INQUIRER.net, Philippine News for Filipinos. Retrieved 20
July 2013. from http://globalnation.inquirer.net/features/features/view/20070425-62431/A-Hometown-as-Literature-for-F-Sionil-Jose
Madichie N.O. (2011). Marketing Senegal through hip-hop: A discourse analysis of Akon's
music and lyrics. Journal
of Place Management and Development, 4, 2. Available
Online at http://www.emeraldinsight.com
Makosinski, Art. (n.d.). Francisco Sionil Jose. Uvic.ca. University of Victoria. Retrieved 20 July
2013 from http://www.engr.uvic.ca/~amakosin/afsj.html
Manuel, Arsenio E. "Guide for the Study of Philippine
Folklore." Philippine Folklore Society (1985): p.49. Monograph.
Martin, J.R. (1999). Grace: the Logogenesis of Freedo. Sage Journal. Available Online at
Martin, J.R., & Rose, D. (2004). Working with Discourse-Meaning beyond the Clause. Great
Britain: Continuum Publisher.
McConnell-Ginet,
S. 1989. The Sexual (Re)Production of Meaning: A Discourse-Based
Theory. In:
Cameron, D. ed., 1998. The Feminist Critique of Language: a Reader. 2nd ed.
London:
Routledge. Ch.15.
Mills, S. 1995. Feminist Stylistics. London: Routledge
Mills, S. 2008. Language and Sexism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Nunan, D. (1990). Introducing Discourse Analysis. Great Britain: Penguin English Publisher.
Pauwels, A. 1998. Women Changing Language. New York: Longman.
Pauwels, A. 2003. Linguistic Sexism and Feminist Linguistic Activism. In: Holmes, J.,
Meyerhoff, M.,
ed., 2003. The
Handbook of Language and Gender. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ch.24.
Rabimin. (2009).
Makna Lagu Dolanan Ilir-Ilir. Gelar Journal Seni Budaya. Surakarta. Fakultas
Seni Pertunjukan ISI Surakarta, 7, 2. 2009. Available Online at http://jurnal.isi-ska.ac.id
Riguera,
Florencio. Ilokano thriftiness. Quezon City: UP Press, 1970. Monograph.
Roces, Alfredo and Grace Roces. "Culture Shock!
Philippines: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette." Eating and
Entertaining. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2010. p.185. Book.
Sagadraca, Tessie T. (n.d.). Philippine History Part I, Presentation from
Prof. Ueseni Gunsi-
Gabriel (Peopling the Philippines
& Pre-Colonial period). Slideshare.net.
Retrieved 24 July 2013 from http://www.slideshare.net/babaylan1111/philippine-history-part-i
Spender, D. 1980. Extracts From Man Made Language. In: Cameron, D. ed., 1998. The
Feminist Critique of
Language: a Reader. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. Ch.6.
Stowell, D., Plumbley, D.M., & Kinns, B.N., (2010). Discourse analysis evaluation method for
expressive
musical interfaces. Centre for Digital MusicQueen Mary, University of
London, UK. Available Online at http://www.eecs.qmul.ac.uk
Talbot, M. 2003. Gender Stereotypes: Reproduction and Challenge. In: Holmes, J.,
Meyerhoff, M.,
ed., 2003. The
Handbook of Language and Gender. Oxford: Blackwell.
Ch.20.
The Ilocos Region. (n.d.) Nasud Philippines. Retrieved 24 July 2013 from
http://www.barkada.de/culture/ilokano.html
TIP. History of TIP. 12 January 2013. Web site.
12 December 2016.
Thomas, Jenny. Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pragmatics. England: Longman.
(1995). Book
Weatherall, A. 2002. Gender, Language and Discourse. New York: Routledge.
Wodak, R., ed. Language, Power and Ideology. Amsterdam: Benjamins (1989). Book
Comments
Post a Comment